Hypertension



Definition

Hypertension is high blood pressure. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of arteries. Arteries are the blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the body's tissues.

Description

As blood flows through arteries, it pushes against the inside of artery walls. The more pressure the blood exerts on the artery walls, the higher the blood pressure is. The size of arteries also affects the blood pressure. When the muscular walls of arteries are relaxed, or dilated, the pressure of the blood flowing through them is lower than when the artery walls narrow, or constricted.

Blood pressure is highest when the heart beats to push blood out into the arteries. When the heart relaxes to fill with blood again, the pressure is at its lowest point. Blood pressure when the heart beats is called systolic pressure. Blood pressure when the heart is at rest is called diastolic pressure. When blood pressure is measured, the systolic pressure is stated first and the diastolic pressure second. Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). For example, if a person's systolic pressure is 120 and diastolic pressure is 80, it is written as 120/80 mm Hg.

Blood pressure measurements

The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute in Bethesda, Maryland released clinical guidelines for blood pressure in 2003, lowering the standard normal readings for adults to less than 120 over less than 80.

Although there are set blood pressure ranges for adults, normal blood pressure ranges for children vary according to age, gender, and height so that different levels of growth are considered when evaluating blood pressure. In children, blood pressure normally rises during growth and maturation and varies greatly during adolescence .

Specific systolic and diastolic blood pressure percentiles have been established for each age, gender, and height group. In children ages six to 12, up to 125/80 mm Hg is considered normal. In youth ages 12–15, 126/78 mm Hg is normal, and for ages 16–18, 132/82 mm Hg is normal.

Children whose blood pressure is above the 95th percentile for their age/gender/height group are diagnosed with hypertension. Children whose blood pressure is between the 90th and 95th percentile are diagnosed with pre-hypertension. Adolescents whose blood pressure is greater than 120/80 also may be diagnosed with pre-hypertension.

Complications

Childhood hypertension is serious because it increases the risk of heart disease, stroke , and other medical problems in adulthood. Serious complications can be avoided by ensuring the child gets regular blood pressure checks and by treating hypertension as soon as it is diagnosed.

If left untreated, hypertension can lead to the following long-term complications:

  • atherosclerosis, also called arteriosclerosis
  • peripheral vascular disease
  • heart attack
  • stroke
  • enlarged heart and heart failure
  • kidney damage or kidney failure
  • retinopathy or blindness

Atherosclerosis is hardening of the arteries. The walls of arteries have a layer of muscle and elastic tissue that makes them flexible and able to dilate and constrict as blood flows through them. High blood pressure can make the artery walls thicken and harden. When artery walls thicken, the inside of the blood vessel narrows. Cholesterol and fats are more likely to build up on the walls of damaged arteries, making them even narrower. Blood clots also can get trapped in narrowed arteries, blocking the flow of blood. When atherosclerosis occurs in the blood vessels leading to the legs and feet, it is called peripheral vascular disease. Blood flow is decreased to the legs and feet with peripheral vascular diseases and can cause poor circulation in the legs, claudication, or aneurysm.

Arteries narrowed by atherosclerosis may not deliver enough blood to organs and other tissues. Reduced or blocked blood flow to the heart can cause a heart attack. If an artery to the brain is blocked, a stroke can result.

Hypertension makes the heart work harder to pump blood through the body. The extra workload can make the heart muscle thicken and stretch. When the heart becomes enlarged it cannot pump enough blood. If the hypertension is not treated, the heart may fail.

The kidneys remove the body's wastes from the blood. If hypertension thickens the arteries to the kidneys, less waste can be filtered from the blood. As the condition worsens, the kidneys fail and wastes build up in the blood. Dialysis or a kidney transplant is needed when the kidneys fail.

Hypertension can cause damage to blood vessels in the eyes, leading to retinopathy, or damage to the retina. Retinal damage becomes severe when blood pressure levels are high and remain elevated for a prolonged period of time.

Demographics

In the United States, an estimated 5–10 percent of children have hypertension, and one in four adults (about 50 million) have hypertension. About 30 percent of those with hypertension do not know they have it. Hypertension is more common in men than women and in people over age 65 than in younger persons. It also is more frequent and severe in African-American and Mexican-American adults and children than in white Americans. The prevalence of high blood pressure among African-Americans and whites in the southeastern United States is greater, and death rates from stroke are higher than among those in other regions.

In the early 2000s, high blood pressure in children and adolescents is on the rise. A 2003 report indicated this increase is most likely due to a greater number of overweight and obese children and adolescents. The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention studied the health and nutrition of Americans in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys for more than 40 years, and the last data were collected in 2000. Researchers found a trend of high blood pressure in children ages eight to 17 years who were overweight or obese.

Causes and symptoms

Causes

Many different actions or situations can normally raise blood pressure. Physical activity and changes in position can temporarily raise blood pressure. Stressful situations can make blood pressure go up. When the stress goes away, blood pressure usually returns to normal. Certain medications also may change blood pressure, but usually blood pressure returns to normal when the drug is discontinued. These temporary increases in blood pressure are not considered hypertension. A diagnosis of hypertension is made only when a person has at least three separate high blood pressure readings performed one to several weeks apart.

Hypertension without a known cause is called primary or essential hypertension. Although the cause of hypertension is unknown in 90–95 percent of adults, primary hypertension is uncommon in children, occurring in less than 1–2 percent of hypertensive children.

When a child has hypertension caused by another medical condition, it is called secondary hypertension. Secondary hypertension can be caused by a number of different illnesses. Kidney disease causes hypertension in 80–85 percent of childhood cases. The kidneys regulate the balance of salt and water in the body. If the kidneys cannot rid the body of excess salt and water, blood pressure goes up. Kidney infections, a narrowing of the arteries that carry blood to the kidneys, called renal artery stenosis, and other kidney disorders can disturb the salt and water balance.

As body weight increases, blood pressure rises. Being overweight or obese is the strongest predictor of hypertension in young adults. Obesity has steadily increased in children and adolescents over the years. An estimated 16 percent of school-age children are over-weight. High blood pressure develops about 10 years after a young person becomes overweight. Obesity may cause other cardiovascular diseases if it is not managed or treated properly.

Risk factors

Risk factors are conditions that increase the chance of developing hypertension. Some of these risk factors can be changed to reduce the risk of developing hypertension or to lower blood pressure:

  • being overweight or obese
  • lack of physical activity
  • a diet high in fat, salt, and sugar
  • heredity
  • low birth weight and subsequent rapid weight gain
  • male sex
  • race
  • congenital conditions, such as coarctation of the aorta
  • diabetes
  • kidney disease
  • in adolescents, heavy alcohol consumption and use of oral contraceptives
  • in adults, being over the age of 60

Although smoking is not directly related to high blood pressure in children and adolescents, those who smoke should stop to reduce their risk of developing other health problems such as coronary artery disease.

Some risk factors for hypertension can be changed, while others cannot. Some children inherit a tendency to develop hypertension, and the risk increases if both parents are hypertensive. Children who have the risk factors above can work with their doctor and family to manage the controllable risk factors.

Symptoms

Hypertension generally does not cause symptoms. When symptoms occur, they are usually mild and non-specific. In young children (age three and younger), symptoms may include:

  • irritability
  • excessive crying
  • failure to gain weight
  • poor feeding
  • low-grade fever

In older children, symptoms may include:

  • dizziness
  • headaches
  • vomiting
  • heart palpitations

In severe and acute (sudden-onset) cases, hypertension can cause seizures, swelling throughout the body, blindness, or renal (kidney) failure. All of these symptoms require immediate medical attention and hospitalization .

When to call the doctor

If a child has any of the following symptoms, the parent or caregiver should call the child's doctor:

  • unexplained headache
  • sudden or gradual changes in vision
  • dizziness or light-headedness that does not resolve with rest
  • nausea associated with headache
  • unexplained or uncontrollable vomiting
  • heart palpitations

If a child has any of these symptoms, the parent or caregiver should immediately seek emergency medical attention:

  • severe headache
  • fainting
  • seizures or convulsions
  • swelling throughout the body
  • unexplained blurred vision or vision loss
  • severe chest pain or shortness of breath
  • unexplained sudden weakness

Diagnosis

Blood pressure in children should be checked regularly: at least at every doctor's visit after age three. Early detection and treatment of hypertension improve the child's overall health and decrease the risk of future health problems associated with hypertension.

Blood pressure is measured with an instrument called a sphygmomanometer. A cloth-covered rubber cuff is wrapped around the upper arm and inflated. When the cuff is inflated, an artery in the arm is squeezed to momentarily stop the flow of blood. Then, the air is let out of the cuff while a stethoscope placed over the artery is used to detect the sound of the blood spurting back through the artery. This first sound is the systolic pressure, the pressure when the heart beats. The last sound heard as the rest of the air is released is the diastolic pressure, the pressure between heartbeats. Both sounds are recorded on the mercury gauge on the sphygmomanometer.

The arm cuff used to measure blood pressure in children must be appropriate to the child's size, or the reading may be inaccurate.

A typical physical examination to evaluate hypertension includes:

  • medical and family history
  • physical examination
  • ophthalmoscopy: examination of the blood vessels in the eye
  • blood and urine tests

The physical exam may include several blood pressure readings at different times and in different positions. For at least five minutes before the blood pressure reading is taken, the child should be seated in a chair, with feet on the floor and arms supported at heart level. For best results, the child should not eat or drink caffeinated products within the 30 minutes prior to the exam. The physician uses a stethoscope to listen to sounds made by the heart and blood flowing through the arteries.

During the physical exam, the child's pulse, reflexes, and height and weight are checked and recorded. Internal organs are palpated to determine if they are enlarged.

Because hypertension can cause damage to the blood vessels in the eyes, the eyes may be checked with a instrument called an ophthalmoscope. The physician will look for thickening, narrowing, or hemorrhages in the blood vessels.

Urine and blood tests may be done to evaluate health and to detect the presence of certain substances that may indicate an underlying condition that is causing the hypertension.

Usually blood tests and urine tests, along with the physical examination and medical history, are enough to make the diagnosis of hypertension. If necessary, to rule out other medical conditions or to assess any damage from hypertension and/or its treatment, the following tests may be performed:

  • Chest x ray: To detect an enlarged heart, other vascular abnormalities, or lung disease.
  • Electrocardiogram (ECG): To measure the electrical activity of the heart. It can detect if the heart muscle is enlarged and if there is damage to the heart muscle from blocked arteries.
  • Echocardiogram (echo): To produce a graphic outline of the heart's movement, valves, and chambers, used to evaluate the function of the heart and valves. Echo is often combined with Doppler ultrasound and color Doppler. During the echo, an ultrasound transducer (hand-held wand placed on the skin of the chest) emits high-frequency sound waves to produce pictures of the heart's valves and chambers. An echo is used in pediatric patients diagnosed with hypertension to determine the extent of left ventricular hypertrophy, a condition in which the heart's main pumping vessel is enlarged.

Treatment

There is no cure for primary hypertension, but blood pressure can almost always be lowered with the correct treatment. The goal of treatment is to lower blood pressure to levels that will prevent heart disease and other complications of hypertension that could manifest in adulthood. In secondary hypertension, the disease that is responsible for the hypertension is treated in addition to the hypertension itself. Successful treatment of the underlying disorder may cure the secondary hypertension.

Clinicians should work with the child and the parents or caregivers to develop an individual treatment plan. Specific treatment goals vary. Treatment should be provided by a pediatric cardiologist or pediatrician with special knowledge and experience in the treatment of high blood pressure.

Lifestyle changes

Depending on the results of diagnostic tests, childhood hypertension is generally treated with lifestyle changes, including diet and exercise , before antihypertensive medication is prescribed. Lifestyle changes that may reduce blood pressure include:

  • losing weight
  • exercising regularly
  • reducing fat, salt, and sugar in the diet
  • managing stress and anxiety
  • quitting smoking and reducing alcohol consumption, as applicable in older children

Reaching and maintaining a healthy body weight is important. Overweight children with hypertension are recommended to lose weight until they are within 15 percent of their healthy body weight. Even a small amount of weight loss can make a major difference. Physical activities should be encouraged, and sedentary activities such as watching television or playing video games should be limited. The recommended exercise goal is aerobic activity, such as brisk walking, at least 30 minutes per day, most days of the week.

A pediatrician can calculate a healthy range of body weight for the child, recommend dietary guidelines, and provide activity guidelines to help the child safely and effectively lose weight. A consultation with a registered dietitian also may assist the parent or caregiver in implementing dietary changes.

Nutritional concerns

Dietary guidelines are individualized, based on the child's blood pressure levels and specific needs. In children older than two years of age, the following low-fat dietary guidelines are recommended:

  • Total fat intake should comprise 30 percent or less of total calories consumed per day.
  • Calories consumed as saturated fat should equal no more than 8 to 10 percent of total calories consumed per day.
  • Total cholesterol intake should be less than 300 mg/dl per day.

Elevated blood pressure can be reduced by an eating plan that emphasizes fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy foods, and which is low in saturated fat, total fat, and cholesterol. The DASH diet is recommended for patients with hypertension and includes whole grains, poultry, fish, and nuts. Fats, red meats, sodium, sweets, and sugar-sweetened beverages are limited. Sodium should also be reduced to no more than 1,500 milligrams per day.

A gradual transition to a heart-healthy diet can help decrease a child's risk of coronary artery disease and other health conditions in adulthood. Parents can replace foods high in fat with grains, vegetables, fruits, lean meat, and other foods low in fat and high in complex carbohydrates and protein. They can resist adding salt to foods while cooking and avoid highly processed foods that are usually high in sodium, such as fast foods, canned foods, boxed mixes, and frozen meals.

Alternative treatment

Alternative and complementary therapies include approaches that are considered to be outside the mainstream of traditional health care.

Techniques that induce relaxation and reduce stress, such as yoga , tai chi, meditation, guided imagery, and relaxation training, may be helpful in controlling blood pressure. Acupuncture and biofeedback training also may help induce relaxation. Before learning or practicing any particular technique, it is important for the parent/caregiver and child to learn about the therapy, its safety and effectiveness, potential side effects, and the expertise and qualifications of the practitioner. Although some practices are beneficial, others may be harmful to certain patients.

Dietary supplements, including garlic, fish oil (omega-3 fatty acids), L-arginine, soy, coenzyme Q10, phytosterols, and chelation therapy may be beneficial, but the exact nature of their effects on blood pressure is unknown. There is little scientific evidence that these therapies lower blood pressure or prevent the complications of high blood pressure, and most of these supplements have not been studied extensively in children and adolescents.

Vitamin E and beta carotene supplements were once thought to help prevent the development of heart disease, but subsequent studies disprove that assumption.

Medications

Medications usually are not prescribed for children as a first-line treatment for hypertension. Medications are prescribed, however, to treat hypertension when the child has significant high blood pressure or organ damage, or when diet and exercise are not adequately controlling the child's blood pressure.

Follow-up care

Follow-up care for hypertension includes home blood pressure monitoring. The parent or caregiver checks the child's blood pressure at different times of the day and records the readings. The doctor reviews this blood pressure record during the child's check-ups to evaluate the effectiveness of the child's treatment and to make any necessary adjustments.

Depending on the child's blood pressure levels and presence of other medical conditions such as diabetes, the doctor may recommend annual eye exams to detect the presence of vision changes and the development of retinopathy.

Prognosis

There is no cure for hypertension. However, it can be well controlled with the proper treatment. Therapy with a combination of lifestyle changes and sometimes antihypertensive medicines usually can manage blood pressure. For most children, early primary hypertension causes no immediate risk of serious health problems, but it does increase the risk for future organ damage. The key to avoiding serious complications of hypertension is to detect and treat it at the earliest possible age so that preventive treatment can be initiated.

Prevention

Avoiding or eliminating known risk factors helps reduce the risk of developing hypertension. Making the same changes recommended for treating hypertension can reduce a child's risk of developing hypertension:

  • losing weight if overweight or obese
  • exercising regularly
  • reducing salt, fat, and sugar in the diet
  • reducing fat intake
  • managing stress and anxiety
  • quitting smoking and limiting alcohol, as applicable in older children

Parental concerns

Parents should reinforce with the child that hypertension is a serious condition that can cause more health problems later in life. Parents should work with their child to make dietary changes and increase their activity level to manage hypertension and prevent it from getting worse. Everyone can benefit when a heart-healthy lifestyle is followed, so the dietary and activity changes made for the hypertensive child will benefit the entire family.

Resources

BOOKS

McGoon, Michael D., and Bernard J. Gersh, eds. Mayo Clinic Heart Book: The Ultimate Guide to Heart Health , 2nd ed. New York: William Morrow and Co., Inc., 2000.

Moore, Thomas, et al. The Dash Diet for Hypertension: Lower Your Blood Pressure in Fourteen Days without Drugs. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc., 2001.

Topol, Eric J. Cleveland Clinic Heart Book: The Definitive Guide for the Entire Family from the Nation's Leading Heart Center. New York: Hyperion, 2000.

Trout, Darrell, and Ellen Welch. Surviving with Heart: Taking Charge of Your Heart Care. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2002.

PERIODICALS

McNamara, Damian. "Obesity Behind Rise in Incidence of Primary Hypertension." Family Practice News (April 1, 2003): 45–51.

——. "Trial Shows Efficacy of Lifestyle Changes for Blood Pressure: More Intensive than Typical Office Visit." Family Practice News (July 1, 2003): 1–2.

"New Blood Pressure Guidelines Establish Diagnosis of Prehypertension: Level Seeks to Identify At-risk Individuals Early." Case Management Advisor (July 2003): S1.

Sorof, Jonathan M., et al. "Cardiovascular risk factors and sequelae in hypertensive children identified by referral versus school-based screening." Hypertension 43 (2004): 214.

KEY TERMS

Aneurysm —A weakened area in the wall of a blood vessel which causes an outpouching or bulge. Aneurysms may be fatal if these weak areas burst, resulting in uncontrollable bleeding.

Aorta —The main artery located above the heart that pumps oxygenated blood out into the body. The aorta is the largest artery in the body.

Arteriosclerosis —A chronic condition characterized by thickening, loss of leasticity, and hardening of the arteries and the build-up of plaque on the arterial walls. Arteriosclerosis can slow or impair blood circulation. It includes atherosclerosis, but the two terms are often used synonymously.

Artery —A blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart to the cells, tissues, and organs of the body.

Atrial —Referring to the upper chambers of the heart.

Claudication —Cramping or pain in a leg caused by poor blood circulation. This condition is frequently caused by hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis). Intermittent claudication occurs only at certain times, usually after exercise, and is relieved by rest.

Coarctation of the aorta —A congenital defect in which severe narrowing or constriction of the aorta obstructs the flow of blood.

Dialysis —A process of filtering and removing waste products from the bloodstream, it is used as a treatment for patients whose kidneys do not function properly. Two main types are hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. In hemodialysis, the blood flows out of the body into a machine that filters out the waste products and routes the cleansed blood back into the body. In peritoneal dialysis, the cleansing occurs inside the body. Dialysis fluid is injected into the peritoneal cavity and wastes are filtered through the peritoneum, the thin membrane that surrounds the abdominal organs.

Diastolic blood pressure —Diastole is the period in which the left ventricle relaxes so it can refill with blood; diastolic pressure is therefore measured during diastole.

Heart attack —Damage that occurs to the heart when one of the coronary arteries becomes narrowed or blocked.

Obesity —An abnormal accumulation of body fat, usually 20% or more over an individual's ideal body weight.

Overweight —Being 25 to 29 percent over the recommended healthy body weight for a specific age and height, as established by calculating body mass index.

Retinopathy —Any disorder of the retina.

Sphygmomanometer —An instrument used to measure blood pressure.

Stroke —Interruption of blood flow to a part of the brain with consequent brain damage. A stroke may be caused by a blood clot or by hemorrhage due to a burst blood vessel. Also known as a cerebrovascular accident.

Systolic blood pressure —Blood pressure when the heart contracts (beats).

Ventricles —The lower pumping chambers of the heart. The ventricles push blood to the lungs and the rest of the body.

ORGANIZATIONS

American College of Cardiology. Heart House, 9111 Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814–1699. Web site: http://www.acc.org.

American Heart Association. 7320 Greenville Ave., Dallas, TX 75231. Web site: http://www.americanheart.org.

American Society of Hypertension. 148 Madison Ave., 5th Floor, New York, NY 10016. Web site: http://www.ash-us.org.

The Cleveland Clinic Heart Center. The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, 9500 Euclid Ave., F25, Cleveland, OH 44195. Web site: http://www.clevelandclinic.org/heartcenter.

Toni Rizzo Teresa G. Odle Angela M. Costello



Also read article about Hypertension from Wikipedia

User Contributions:

1
sydelle banks
thank you for this information. I needed to determine the actual CAUSE of my sudden rise in pressure. 3 mos. ago (and usually) it was 118/62 - 122/64, etc. Yesterday, 170/100 . . cause for investigation..

Comment about this article, ask questions, or add new information about this topic: